Japans Alternate Attendance System

Japan's Alternate Attendance System The alternate attendance system, or sankin-kotai, was a Tokugawa Shogunate policy that required daimyo  (or provincial lords) to divide their time between the capital of their own domain and the shoguns capital city of Edo (Tokyo). The tradition actually began informally during the reign of Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1585 - 1598), but was codified into law by Tokugawa Iemitsu in 1635.   Actually, the first sankin-kotai law applied only to what were known as the  tozama  or outside daimyo. These were lords who did not join the Tokugawa side until after the Battle of Sekigahara (Oct. 21, 1600), which cemented Tokugawa power in Japan. Many of the lords from distant, large, and powerful domains were among the tozama daimyo, so they were the shoguns first priority to control. In 1642, however, sankin-kotai was also extended to the  fudai  daimyo, those whose clans had been allied with the Tokugawas even before Sekigahara. A past history of loyalty was no guarantee of continued good behavior, so the fudai daimyo had to pack their bags as well. Alternate Attendance System Under the alternate attendance system, each domain lord was required to spend alternating years in their own domain capitals or attending the shoguns court in Edo. The daimyo had to maintain lavish homes in both cities  and had to pay to travel with their retinues and samurai armies between the two places every year. The central government insured that the daimyo complied by requiring that they leave their wives and first-born sons in Edo at all times, as virtual hostages of the shogun. The shoguns stated reason for imposing this burden on the daimyo was that it was necessary for national defense. Each daimyo had to supply a certain number of samurai, calculated according to the wealth of his domain, and bring them to the capital for military service every second year. However, the shoguns actually enacted this measure to keep the daimyo busy and to impose hefty expenses on them, so that the lords would not have the time and money to start wars. Alternate attendance was an effective tool to prevent Japan from slipping back into the chaos that characterized the Sengoku Period (1467 - 1598).   The alternate attendance system also had some secondary, perhaps unplanned benefits for Japan.  Because the lords and their large numbers of followers had to travel so often, they needed good roads. A system of well-maintained highways grew across the entire country, as a result. The main roads to each province were known as the  kaido. The alternate attendance travelers also stimulated the economy all along their route, buying food and lodging in the towns and villages that they passed through on their way to Edo. A new kind of hotel or guesthouse sprang up along the kaido, known as honjin, and built specifically to house the daimyo and their retinues as they traveled to and from the capital.  The alternate attendance system also provided entertainment for the common people. The daimyos yearly processions back and forth to the shoguns capital were festive occasions, and everyone turned out to watch them pass. After all, everybody loves a parade. Alternate attendance worked well for the Tokugawa Shogunate. During its entire reign of more than 250 years, no Tokugawa shogun faced an uprising by any of the daimyo. The system remained in force until 1862, just six years before the shogun fell in the Meiji Restoration. Among the leaders of the Meiji Restoration movement were two of the very most tozama (outside) of all the daimyo - the restive lords of Chosu and Satsuma, at the very southern end of the main Japanese islands.

Influences of Online Book Preview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Influences of Online Book Preview - Essay Example Considering such situations the publishing house has been suggested to start on a new venture of online publications of their books and sell their books via the popular retailers over the web space. The publishing house can also make some portion of their books available over the Internet which may act as an effective promotional campaign for their books. However they needs to be careful with such measures as often service providers can publish books online without their permission and also can make the books available for free download. Case of Google book copyright infringement has been referred to bring out a practical example of such copyright violations. The publishing house needs to be careful in implementing such measures as any negligence can further hamper their cause. Technology has improved rapidly in the past decade. It has made its prominence in almost all the sectors. Business houses all over the world have implemented the e-business to gain maximum profitability for th eir business. Digitalization of market has made it possible for the availability of almost everything over the internet. The number of technology savvy people has increased considerably all over the globe and people prefer to take the online help to meet their purpose. In such an era, digitalization of books has covered a large part of the e-market and is providing considerable amount of threat for the conventional publisher who does not have a considerable presence over the web. Furthermore the presence of the online book preview is hampering the business of the publishers to a large extent. Popularity of Online book preview Online book preview is available in many internet sites where the users can view the book in an electronic form. The electronic books are published over the internet which facilitates the users to have a glance of the whole book or a part of the book. The e-books are readable on computers or in the latest electronic devices. The existence of e-book can be possi ble without any printed equivalence. The earlier version of the eBooks was available for specific purposes and in specialized areas and had limited number of viewers. Those form of ebooks or the online book preview options did not pose any considerable harm to the interest of the major publication houses and it was quite beneficial for the readers as well. However post 1990, internet broadened the option of the availability of the eBooks occurred in large scale. In the present market the online preview of books is available in many desired technological formats which have created more interest among the readers. Another feature of the online book preview really benefits the interest of the users which includes the free viewing. The users over the internet can virtually have a preview of their desired books for almost free, which further enhances their cause of the growing popularity of the medium. Other than the option of free viewing some internet sites also provides the option for the free download which comes as a gift for the millions of book readers. Nowadays users of internet can gain access to almost any books of their preferred subjects and choice and read them online. The online book preview provides facility also offers opportunity for the writers who cannot publish their books because of the denial from the publishers. They can make their books available to the readers through the online mode.  

Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Film - Essay Example Essentially considering which specific context would inspire the film to convey its core substance and value, Linklater and the rest of the filmmaking body could have schemed for direction and production on account of the city structure of Paris, the significance of open spaces within this big city, as well as the use of mixed concepts involving places whose functions are distinct from each other. Paris had shaped and created a colourful indispensable mark in the world history as much as the mother nation had so that through it, one would gain ease and good point of recollecting the period of Renaissance or the age of Enlightenment across Europe where fields like arts, literature, music, and philosophy flourished upon the emergence of intellectuals. To this day, the essence of creativity and critical thinking lives on in a manner that encourages a culture of thinkers to run the course of nature which apparently determines the mild rustic look of Paris, as a whole, though it is widely known to the world for its high sense of fashion. Its preserved humble yet classical structure occurs as the leading ground behind how the city manages to remain conducive for intellectual sort of reflections among real individuals whose roles might probably be those assumed by Jesse and Celine. Watching â€Å"Before Sunset† with intent look into the general structure of the city, the audi ence may naturally recognize the feel of society that lacks industrial appeal or some technological approach of projecting the theme, for the thematic relevance that proceeds along the conversation of the couple seems intimately connected to the historical roots of civilization. The structural worth of the city provides context to a depth of insight possessed by the main act of exchanging words from point to point where no high-rise postmodern constructions blend in so as to secure the notion that the city is at the level close to the view of humanism rather than industrialism. On the other

Studies and researches on diverse groups of English speakers Essay Example for Free

Studies and researches on diverse groups of English speakers Essay In lieu of the English language expansion throughout the globe, particular nation should really take the advantage of being proficient in the English language even if it is not its official language. As stated earlier, the English language is widely known and used not only by the English-spoken countries but also by the international community (Cheshire 2007). Thus, it is really an advantage if countries would learn how to speak and understand the English language. However, the inclusion of the English language in the curriculum of education of different countries is not really that simple. Moreover, the English language itself is being draft and constructed in a new structure depending on the culture, tradition and established educational method. Hence in a way, there is still a different way of using and understanding the English language. Shaobin’s â€Å"English as a Global Language in China† According to Ji Shaobin, the English language is a very important tool for the Chinese in order to have access on the international scene. He argued that in this modern period, the language that is commonly used in the international scene is the English language hence China should improve their proficiency in the English language (2002). He said that in the ancient times China was against having any contact with the Western culture because of a fear that their Chinese cultural heritage might be contaminated (Shaobin 2002). However, such conservatism would not really help China in advancing itself economically and politically speaking (Weixing 2003). Also, such attempt to close China from the influence of the English language became so impossible given the fact that in order to have a good international business transaction or any international affair, one should do it using the English language otherwise both parties would not understand each other. Moreover, China realized that only through the use of the English language can they penetrate and have access on modern scientific and technological advances (Liu 2007). Besides, the English language is the language that is being used in economic transactions globally (Ross 1993). Hence, China was forced to recognize the importance of a foreign language – that is the English language. In 1978, the reformation of the Chinese economy marked the total entrance of English as its foreign language (Shaobin 2002). With the consideration that Western companies and other transnational organizations may really help the economy of China, English was allowed to be used and practiced in China (Ross 1993). Due to overwhelming advantages of learning and using the English language, China included in its curriculum of education the teaching of English. Such change in educational system facilitated the economic progress in China wherein people who have something to do with business and marketing were using the English language to make business transactions outside China (Shaobin 2002). In addition, Chinese students, even if learning English was not really compulsory, were forced to study it since it has a great advantage on employment. There was an increase of need on English teachers who would teach the English language top the Chinese students (Shaobin 2002). And because of this event, even Chinese teachers were motivated to take English courses too. Nonetheless, China does not really intend to embrace the Western tradition. It is only the English language that they want to adopt. Evidently, China is rising as one of the superpowers in this modern era (Weixing 2003). Together with Japan, China has truly made use of the English language to boost its economic and political aspects. Japan on the English Language and English-speakers The English Language has been considered as the second official language in Japan (Porcaro 2002). It cannot be doubted that Japan has a distinct culture and tradition as well as form of educational system that which is far different from other countries. However, due to economic pursuit, Japan realizes the importance of having a second language that other countries can understand. Japan uses the English to advance itself politically, economically and internationally (Marciamo 2005). The English language is widely used in Japan as public signs. Although, these signs are still printed in Japanese language, it is translated in the English language. Street signs, area maps, transportation directions, post offices and banks’ signs are also translated in English. Such is made for the benefit of the tourists. It is a lot easier and practicable to translate those signs in the English language in order for the tourists to understand the signs posted in Japan (for travel convenience) (Marciamo 2005). When it comes to internet and websites, Japanese companies provide an English version of their websites. Further, the government of Japan and its agencies has also an English version of its websites (McMillan 1999). With regards to media and movies, Japanese films are shown with English subtitles (Marciamo 2005). There are also bilingual programs that are being simulcast and shown in the national TV channel of Japan – in Japanese and in English (McMillan 1999). Major newspapers and magazines are also printed with English translations. Japan’s curriculum for education includes the teaching of the English language (just like China). The Japanese government makes English a required subject. All Japanese schools include English in their education program (Saito, Nakamura, Yamazaki 2002). However it is not the case that all Japanese are proficient in the English language – in writing and speaking of it. Yet, it shows that Japan’s proficiency in speaking the English language is rising (Marciamo 2005). Moreover, the Japanese language is said to have an increasing character of having assimilations on the English language (Marciamo 2005). But then, it does not follow that all English speakers worldwide can understand the Japanese language. Only that the English language is being used extensively by the Japanese people in their everyday activities and dwellings (Stanlaw 2005). There is no other country but Japan where the English language has a special status (McMillan 1999). As mentioned above, it does not follow that all or even most of the Japanese can speak and understand (Marciamo 2005) English. Hitherto, Japan is one of the countries which regard the English language as an essential means to communicate with other people of different culture, race and tradition.

Comparing Virtue and Vice in Garrick’s Romeo and Juliet and Bowdler’s R

Virtue versus vice is of great concern in the 18th century, an issue that causes a major shift in the presentation of plays on the stage. Stage writers adapted well-known plays to meet the criteria and expectations of the time. Contributing to the overall acceptance of virtue on stage is the enforcement of decency and cleanliness by both the ruling class and the audience. A famous actor of the time, David Garrick, not only abided by these rules but also worked them to his advantage. Garrick packed theater houses with his talent and versatility as an actor, while at the same time promoting an acceptance of cleaner versions of plays. Many of these adapted plays were by Shakespeare, though Garrick himself wrote plays that were as universally accepted. Audiences today may criticize the inadequacy of these adaptations, but during the 18th century audiences expected and loved them. What were these changes exactly and where did they originate? Garrick himself does not begin this movement towards virtue, but simply accepts the changes present. In 1698, Jeremy Collier wrote A Short View of the Immortality and Profaneness of the English Stage. This piece strongly attacks the current conditions of the theater and the various "immoral" works by certain authors currently published. The Longman Anthology of British Literature writes, "by portraying wickedness in ways that give delight, [Jeremy Collier] argued contemporary plays cultivated in their audiences the vices of their characters" (2270 Longman Anthology of British Literature). These authors include such notable minds as John Dryden, William Congreve and William Wycherley. Collier especially criticizes the profane use of language and the abuse of clergy all of which, he felt, manage... ...sctn=1 Garrick, David. The Dramatic Works of David Garrick, Esq. Vo. 1 London, 1798. Greenbalt, ed. The Norton Shakespeare Based on theOxford Edition. New York: London, 1997. Frye, Northrop. "Essay date 1986." Mark W. Scott, ed. pgs 575-579. Hume, Robert D. "Before the Bard: Shakespeare in Early Eighteenth-Century London." ELH 64.1 (1997): 41-75. November 14, 2000. <http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/elh/v064/64.1hume.html>. Jameson, Anna Brownell. "Essay date 1833." Mark W. Scott, ed. pgs 423-425. Knight, Joseph. "David Garrick" Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800. Vol. 15. November 7, 2000. http://galenet.com/serv/LitRC/hitsc=1&b=17171779&savedsrch=&NR=Garrick&OP=contains&DT=Author+RE. Scott, Mark W. ed. Shakespeare Criticism. Kansas City: Gale Research Company, 1987. Ulrici, Hermann. "Essay date 1847." Mark W. Scott, ed. pgs 427-428.

Urbanisation has changed the face of Mumbai

After living in this busy metropolis, this island of islands for about 17 years I’ve realised one thing – your senses are automatically heightened. Whether it’s your eyes that are constantly alert in the fast paced traffic or your ears that are forced to hear a cacophony of trains, vendors and honking cars. Your mouth and taste buds that have grown accustomed to Mumbai’s spicy, flavoursome cuisine. And of course, we’ve all had the chance to travel in a packed local train, scared that we’d get pick-pocketed, it’s like we’re born with a heightened sense of touch too.But I perceive Mumbai to be a â€Å"city of smells†. By this, I don’t imply that ours is a city full of stench and smog, no it’s much more than that! Like each home has a distinct smell of its own, Mumbai has these particular aromas and scents that define the city and give it character. The moment you step into Mumbai, your impression about the cit y could vary, depending on whether you’re an optimist or a pessimist. A pessimist would complain about the foul odour that comes from the slums, (You should know that Mumbai is home to one of the largest slums in Asia – Dharavi, so that’s a lot of stink! , the amount of vehicular pollution and smoke from cigarettes, the malodour of overflowing sewage etc. An optimist, on the other hand would enjoy the sterile, sanitised smell of malls, hotels which are plenty in Mumbai. Or you could be a realist like me and believe the city has a dual identity with motley collection of fragrances and odours. But that’s a discussion for later. Urbanisation has changed the face of Mumbai entirely – quaint little bungalows with terracotta tiled roofs are replaced with high rises made of chrome and glass. Niwas-es† and ‘Sadans’ are pulled down to make way for ‘Towers’ and ‘Heights’. However there still are some remaining gar dens and patches of green like the Hanging Gardens, Jijamata Udyan, the Sanjay Gandhi National Park to name a few. Mumbaikars still visit these parks to get a whiff of nature. And how can I forget the numerous â€Å"Chaafa† or champa trees with their sweet smelling flowers! Ironically this fast pace of industrialisation and development hasn’t improved the condition of public toilets in the city. Most Mumbaikars still cringe at the stink that comes from our city’s ‘shauchalayas’.The part of Mumbai that I enjoy the most is the sea. As a child, I’d know that we were passing by some â€Å"Chowpatty† or beach by the crisp saltiness in the air. Mumbai’s fish markets smell of the salty sea too – it’s the smell of freshly caught fish. Most times these markets give off the odour of rotting fish – an odour I still find repulsive. And then there is the floating smell of sukka bombil or Bombay duck dried in the sun near the coast! Another way of knowing that you’re near a crowded beach is the inescapable smell of chaat.The aroma of herbs, garam masala, the tang of squeezed lemons in a plate of bhelpuri or sev puri are enough to set the juices going in your mouth! You’d also smell vadapavs being friend and pav bhaaji being prepared – taka-tak – two dishes that originated in Mumbai. And then there is the smell of piping hot ‘cutting chai’, (The term cutting chai is said to have originated in Mumbai too! ) sold at tea stalls at every nukkad of Mumbai. Every meal in India usually ends with â€Å"paan†. Another common feature on the streets and many walls of Mumbai are paan stains which have their own disagreeable stink.Sometimes I can tell which part of Mumbai I’m in only by the distinctive redolence of that part. I know my train is passing through Andheri when I get a whiff of baked biscuits because the Parle G factory is very close to Andheri st ation. I know that my taxi has taken a turn at King’s Circle because of the aroma of freshly ground coffee beans and the local cafes serving original south-Indian filter coffee. For that matter I still associate the aroma of freshly baked bread, cakes and cookies from the string of bakeries in my very own Orlem.Travelling in local trains has become a part of the daily routine of a large number of Mumbaikars. More than often these trains are overcrowded, filled with more passengers than can fit in. Now it’s not the sea of bodies that I have an issue with, it’s the smell of human sweat that’s the problem! At such times I dream of Mumbai during the monsoon. There is nothing more beautiful, more gratifying than rains in the city! It gives us Mumbaikars relief from the summer heat, the air smells fresh and clean. The smell of wet mud right after a shower is almost magical. Yes, such earthy fragrances are a part of Mumbai too!

Global Environmental Issues Of The World - 1605 Words

There are more than 7 billion people on Earth and counting presently, and roughly one in eight of us does not have enough to eat. The question â€Å"how many people the Earth can contain and sustain† is a long-standing one that becomes more intense as the world s population—and our use of natural resources—keeps booming(1). It should be noted that there are 7 continents (Asia, Africa, South America, North America, Europe, Australia and Antarctica) and 196 countries without including sub-nations and unoccupied islands in the world. This is not shocking to people as the world dynamics cannot be completely studied as population trends change from time to time due periodic occurrences. Population debates like this are why, in 2011, National Geographic published a series called 7 Billion on world population, its trends, implications, and future. After years of examining global environmental issues such as climate change, energy, food supply, and freshwater, we thought the time was ripe for a deep discussion of people and how we are related to all these other issues—issues that are getting increased attention today, amid the new population projections(1). Recent researches show that the world population took billions of years to reach 7 billion and between 200 years rapidly increased 5 percent and increased to 7.4 billion(2).(2) In a famous 1798 essay, the Reverend Thomas Malthus proposed that human population would grow more rapidly than our ability to grow food, and thatShow MoreRelatedGlobal Environmental Issues Of The World1540 Words   |  7 Pageshow many people the Earth can support is a long-standing one that becomes more intense as the world s population—and our use of natural resources—keeps booming(1). 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